Rites of passage of the spartan youth

Rites of loss musical mode of the s sharean younkerThe aim of this paper is to investigate the purpose of rites of changeover in the friendlyization of knockout youth. Methodologic on the wholey, our discussion will be base upon a) ancient literary sources, in particular Plutarch, Xenophon and Pausanias, b) interdisciplinary approaches initiated by refreshedfangled historians and sociologists, and c) archaeological evidence. pa graphic symbol will begin with an overview of the ancient stark tuitional dodge and, in particular, an assessment of the evidence for the enfolding of both boys and little girls in fetes. It is concluded that the ascetics combine a system of rites of conversion in their reproductional designme with the aim to achieving the greatest aims of genialization of their youth, both boys and girls, the main modestness for which was the principal(prenominal) role that energizing activities played in the context of rites of theodolite. let on playscripts Rites of passage, look-threatening enculturation, Sparta youth.IntroductionThe fascinatingly complex stark tradition holds an to the highest degree-valuable blot in western semi governmental thought, while the capture exercised by the images and the fables of Sparta are still potent today. Amongst the numerous wicked institutions curiosity is caused by the eminent austere grooming agogi, an education system which was under(a) the guardianship and control of the assure, which according to m any(prenominal) historians lay behind Spartas supremacy in becoming the most militarily successful Greek city-state (Kennell, 1995, Birgalias, 1999, Ducat, 2006, Koliopouos, 2004). program line was obligatory and uniform for each asceticals, a uniformity that enforced an important institutional re stiffion on the display of wealth, in contrast to early(a) Greek city-states, in particular Athens. Uniformity in training and education was regulated in ancient Sparta th rough a system of Rites of Passage, this organismness defined as a ritual marking a transitional phase in a persons status in the context of mixer hierarchies, cheers and beliefs. Rites of passage are ceremonies surrounding unconstipatedts much(prenominal)(prenominal) landmark events as barbarian tolerate, coming of age, menstruation, marriage and death and are roleised by three phases separation, liminality, and re- internalisation. acculturation is defined as the adoption of the behavior patterns of any given culture, describing the address by which people are integrated and mixd into familiarity. The more sound mixerization is, the greater the internalization of prevailing social norms and prys. Social mash and social coercion are non expressed via imitation only via the internalization of collective consciousness, spontaneously and at the same measure via the province of the individual to accept the social norm (Durkheim, 2000, p. 17).The result of this prev alent way of life was that each citizen of Sparta should accept the discriminating pressure of cosmos position so that he could cope with the models of behaviour established by the terrible society.MethodologyThe first category of sources upon we rely is historical evidence even though it contains plenty of voids caused by successive alterations throughout centuries. Subsequently, we will state of warp upon literary testimonies. At first we sh wholly focus on historiography that provides an overall frame, in gear up to comprehend an era and secondly on texts of political hypothesis and philosophy that offer direct testimonies regarding historical particulars and thirdly on metrical composition and rhetorical speeches, (Alkman, Tyrtaios, Aristophanes, Isocrates) that light up grave society of the archaic and mere times.Of grandness is the information from Herodotus and Thucydides, even though they present the Spartan organize of their times as very primitive. Lakedaemoni on Politeia of Kritias presents the first motiflized picture of Sparta, an idea that appears later in Xenophons Lakedaemonion Politeia. An analysis of Spartan society was similarly assay by Plato (Politeia, Nomoi) and Aristotle (Politica). A parkland sustain in both is a critical attitude towards the idealization of Sparta and towards the theory that presents the decline of the city as a result of contemporary political erosion. Additionally, Plutarchs work lays emphasis on the moral setting of the education. The Lycurgus work constitutes the foundation st i of the key-elements of new(a) stereotypes. Since the nineteenth degree centigrade and the birth of the science of explanation, through Mullers, Grottes, Foustels de Coulange projects, whose notions form a primer for the interpretation of social-politic character of Spartan society or through those of the twentieth century (Nilssons, Jeanmaires and Finelys works), the issue acquired specific scientific and historical dim ension. During the 20th century these approaches were enriched by the conclusions of comparative ethnology thus allocating the origin of various educational institutions and plowes to a common Mediterranean past. A second instructive opinion shifts by-line into the political, social and economic objectives of education, placing emphasis on its aristocratic character and on the spirit of contest, on the socialization of the boy corresponding person and on the value system that childlysters inherit. (Birgalias, 1999, p. 387). Useful tools are the essays of comparative ethnology regarding age-related classes, testing and ceremonies, in modulate to reconcile literature with the archaeological evidence. Vidal Naque points out that literary, philosophical and historical texts, fab narrations and social practices, on one hand, and the world of rituals related to political decisions, should be bridged. In his work, St. Hodkinson aims at presenting an overall picture of a complicated society, much(prenominal) as the Spartan, approaching it through diverse levels and different social congregations. new(a) scientific studies concerning Sparta attempt to comprehend its internal structures. (Powell 1988, 1989, Richer 1999, Cartledge and Spawforth 1989, Hodkinson and Powell 1999, Kennell 1995, Brigalias 1999, Ducat, 2006).Agogi and Spartan festivalsAgogi education of young persons, both girls and boys in Sparta which include, in addition to writing, reading and music, many an other(prenominal) kinetic activities much(prenominal) as plot of grounds, athletics, sports, saltation, hunting and military exercises. These actions, apart from their incorporation into the nonchalant educational program, were performed during public eats and spiritual ceremonies where participation of youngsters be part of their agogi and also in the context of the rites of passages where kinetic activities held a leading role. In Sparta the corporeal structure and the mind were e xercised at the same time depending on the age of children. This repeat exercise dictated a concrete system of values. Agogi had clearly a social character and the work out accomplished by it, was of great importance. As members of an organized society, i ndividuals are affected by the cultural level of the group, accept the educative effect of the whole and shape their privateities. The terra firma is who determines the objectives and the promoter of each educational system. Spartan education aimed at infusing common concor move and at cultivating we at the expense of I. Agogi aimed, above all, at the homogeneity of the citizens. Spartan festivals especially, Gymnopaidiai, Karneia and Yakintheia were the arena for competition betwixt different age groups, and complicated the participation of the complete fleshly structure politic (Hodkinson, 2004, p. 298). Participation in religious and public events was compulsory for all youth and formed an official part of their trai ning. achievement played an important role in these rituals and the kinetic-strong-arm skills of young Spartans were assessed by the built-in body politic (Athenaeus, 14, 630d-631b, Polignac, 2007, p. 70-71, Ducat, 2006, p. 263-265, Panagea, 2001, p. 68-71).Gymnopaidiai involved the participation of the entire body of citizens. As far as we know, each group infixd with four dances trichoria, a childrens choir, one of adolescents and another of heavy(a) males. Many scholars consider the contests of the Gymnopaidiai as tests of endurance for the children and an constitutive(a) part of their education (Pettersson, 1992, p. 45-47). In the festival of the Gymnopaidiai we also identify elements of incorporation, such as dance or nudity, elements that played an important role in the integration of youth into the body politic. The game of sphere was another ritual that was assessed and characterised as a transition from adolescence to maturehood (Kennell, 1995, p. 60, Ducat, 2006, p. 270-274).At the Karneia, the role of youth was different from that in other festivals firstly, the age of the participants was from twenty on, a alternatively marginal physical age for educational purposes secondly, young Spartans didnt only participate in the events but were also responsible for organising them, which clearly indicates that they were indeed the prospective of the corporation.The participation of young Spartans in dance, contests and games constituted a great cause of communication. Social bonds were thus strengthened and children spent more time outside, together with and creatively. In this way young people developed better personal affinitys, exitd in harmony, rhythm, beauty and practically enjoyed a better quality of life.The solemnization of the Yakintheia the other important religious festival of the Spartans provided a great luck for girls to show off their marriageable skills.In all three important religious festivals the young members of the communi ty played a world-shaking role, not at an individual level, as in the rites of passage, but, along with other participants of different ages, in the context of the body politic where they displayed the achievements of their training and were accordingly evaluated.The process of socialization was integrated with religious activity from an early age, confirming the socio-religious aspect towards which the educational system was directed. (Ducat, 2006, p. 276-277, Panagea, 2001, p. 68-71, Sigalos, 1959, p. 214-216, Baltrusch, 2004, p. 98).Exercising the body was the main aim of education. early Spartans took part in many contests whose principal aim was to increase the purport of competition amongst them. These contests mainly took place during cultural religious events, thus connecting the agogi, the education, with religious devotion. Besides the games, though, music and dance played fundamental role in such events. Dance and music had public and pedagogic function enigmatical down Spartan society. every last(predicate) citizens participated collectively, as members of their own classes, under taking roles hierarchically structured. Moreover, Spartan feasts were based on the unselfish attendance of citizens. Joint participation in dance under the guidance of the chorodidaskalos (dance instructor) constituted a major feature to the political and social life of Sparta. indication in these contests and in dances, success, and physical capacity along with morals were prominent elements of social classification. These factors had primary substance to the rank that someone would occupy in the social conscience. Public extolment or reproach, success or rejection of a boy or a girl had decisive impact in their social recognition and status.DiscussionCommenting on the fact that Sparta had been described as a democratic state, Aristotle (Pol. 1294 b 21-7) recognized that it featured certain democratic characteristics shared among the rich and the brusk classe s, such as uniformity in education, food provision and dress, sectors of free-and-easy life in which the possession of wealth did not provide any advantage to its h previous(a) (Hodkinson, 2004, p. 300-326).Spartan children spent most of their childhood from more or less the age of seven up to the age of eighteen- training with other children, or else than liveness with their families. The effect of this companionship and co-existence on children was the constant experience of an intense pressure to conform to the social rules and the generally accepted models of behaviour. (Koliopoulos, 2004, p. 101).In history of education Sparta certainly possesses a concrete place. Most characteristic of all Spartan products is its constitutional system with which, for the first time, the city-state appears as the force practicing agogi, taking into account the total signification of this term. (Jaeger, 1968 p. 11). Spartan education was considered as a procedure where youngsters should pa rticipate in a common system and concurrently a selected team should be distinguished. The principal objective was their suitable reproduction so that they could cope with their role as citizens soldiers (Legras 2005, p. 38). P. Cartledge (2004 p. 32) makes that agogi was a system of education, training and socialization. It constituted an obligatory educational circle a type of ordeal for young persons in order to reach the level of bountifuls (Cartledge, 2004, p.129). Jeanmaire (1913) in his denomination on the Krypteia of Lacedaemonians and in his book of Couroi et Couretes (1939) interpreting the agogi refers to the survival of ancient curtain raising ceremonies governd from comparative ethnology. He speaks of the rites of passage, the tests. Everybody, however, underlines the obligatory public character of the agogi and the fact that it was common to everyone. (Levy 2008, p. 76).Agogi lasted from the age of seven to the age of eighteen. Children spent most of their tim e living a communal life, especially after the age of twelve, and their education was fundamentally divided into three circles based on the childs physical age, namely paides (children), meirakia (youngsters) and epheboi (adolescents). each cycle included specific ordeals and a specific training program of intellectual and physical exercises.The Agogi constituted a range of initiative and educational cycle of age-related groups and processes. It was meticulously organized, comprehensive and competitive. Moreover, it accomplished a double function of socialization and education (Cartledge, 2004, p. 195). Exercising the body formed the nucleus of agogi. modern Spartans took part in many contests whose main aim was to increase the esthesis of competition amongst them. Activities of Spartan education were mainly concentrated on body training. During these festivals, fights and dances took place, where contestants demonstrated their bodily strength, the harmony of their body and their velocity in running. Distinction in these fights, success and physical ability constituted rudimentary elements of social classification. Agogi made use of these contests, games, fights and dance in order for knowledge to be checked and the best one to be selected. The whole education was characterized by a spirit of rivalry in which awards of honors and rewards to the feat of competitions held a significant place, thus limiting discriminations based on origin and wealth. Competitions and processional demonstrations of rites of passage, that dogged the physical ability of youngsters, passed also down to agogi. These events included public inspections of the skillfulness of young Spartans during festivals. The results of agogi were evaluated along with the kinetic and physical abilities of boys and girls (Kyle, 2007, p. 183, Kennell, 1995, p. 65-69). Participation in these rituals guaranteed a unwashed recognition of social placement and confirmed the integration in the community, formation the first form of political identity.Writing and reading, music, poetry, dance, athletic contests, attendance at feasts, as well as participation in activities that to a modern way of thinking seem strange and bizarre, such as, pederasty and ordeals like theft and the Krypteia. All those constituted the diverse fields of expression, acquisition and coating of the knowledge gained as well as the mover employed for their socialisation. The testimonies we possess, attempt the citys sweats to teach young children how to co-exist with children of the same age, older children and adults as part of a whole, as well as to initiate new members into its culture. (Sakellariou.).The duty of the State and its educational program was to create the perfect citizen who demonstrated a deep sense of political, military and social duty, bore weapons for the defence and the glory of his city, governed its affairs, complied with its rules and maintain its values and traditions. Spartan education thus shaped the model of the citizen-soldier (Birgalias 1999, p. 388, Ducat 2006, p. 168). In addition, compliance to the accepted models of behaviour became subject to constant control, which comprises the totality of rewards and sanctions (praise and disapproval) with which society regulates individual behaviour. (Gizeli, 1993, p.119, Nova Kaltsouni, 1998, p. 80-84).The fact, after all, that education in Sparta was intensively collective contributed to the socialization of children and to the growth of their personality, thus leading to a smooth future incorporation into the society. During their education young Spartans were obliged to participate in the religious feasts of their city. The significance of such feasts, which were organized by the state, was crucial to their upbringing. In most of them, where the entire city was present, children of both sexes participated (Ducat, 2006, p. 251). Processions, masks, competitions and contests constituted part of Spartan fe stivals. Athletic events, dance and music the moral aim of which is always associated to the tendencies of constitution, all these are the basic elements of feasts. (Birgalias, 1999, p. 185-187). Most significant festivals were those of Karneia, Yakintheia and Gymnopaidia. Karneia is a rite of obvious importance for the community, old rural ritual. (Brelich, 1969, p. 148).asic education included primarily reading, writing, maths and musical acts (music, poetry, notification and dancing). Contests and different sports constituted major part of the agogi. According to Ducat (2006) three were the elements of Spartan education for young persons, the process of rites of passage and education organized by the state, the courses that like in other cities were provided by schoolteachers and the prolonged exposure to social institutions as long as children were in touch with choosing and voting for the best. other characteristic feature of this era was the constant competition promoted amo ng youngsters. (Ducat, 2006, p. 333-339).Thus, the attitude and behaviour of Spartan children was constantly supervised by the Paidonomos, the Ephors, the elderly and the women (Ducat, 2006, p.162). The historian Plutarch (Lycurgus 14.5-6) mentions that in certain religious ceremonies, which were particularly popular as spectacles and in which all citizens of all social ranks participated, including the Kings and the Senate, young girls composed songs which praised or mocked the whole works of the boys. such(prenominal) songs that formed part of a game were in fact as effective as admonition by the adults. In this case, girls were being employed as an educational means for the amelioration of the boys. Girls learnt to become strict judges so that the young Spartan boys were obliged to make an effort to improve themselves and earn the public praise of the girls (Ducat, 2006, p. 162, Kargakos, 2006, p. 551).Pederasty was also incorporated into the military, ritualistic and educationa l system of Spartan agogi. The adult lover, the eispnilas, was responsible for the behaviour, the values, the mathematical process and the character of his young beloved, the aitas.The relationship developed between a child and an adult male was in fact contributed to the childs gradual integration into adult society (Kennell, 1995, p.125-126, Kargakos, 2006, p.551). Emphasis was placed, therefore, on the process of socialization via the association of children with the older members of the community, during which attendance at political discussions played an important role (Birgalias, 1999).All decisions governing Spartan adolescence tended to stress the distinction between adolescents and younger children, as a way of integration into adult life. Educational practices and events during festivals, such as the games at Platanistas or the ritual stealing of cheese from the altar of Artemis Orthia, were performed at this age. According to Isocrates, successful stealing was publicly d eclared in order to attract the praise and respect of the others.Stealing and Krypteia constituted in a way a game of hide and seek, an exercise teaching children how to live and survive alone depending merely on the powers of nature and exclusively on their physical and mental strength (Xenophon, Lak. Pol. 2.9, Kennell, 1995, p. 122-123, Birgalias, 1999, Ducat, 2006, p. 202-203, Hodkinson, 2004, p. 205).Reporting on the legislators orders in dressing of the new Spartan citizen for war, Plato (Law 1.633 b.) underlines the importance of communal meals, gymnastics, hunting and ordeals of endurance such as wrestling and the ritual lively on the altar of Artemis Orthia. The game of sphere, the games at Platanistas, the ritual stealing of cheese from the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia and the ritual whipping that later developed into the contest of karteria (endurance), were competitive games. The city of Sparta organised such public spectacles during which children and young men demonstr ated their virtues and courage, and were accordingly evaluated (Ailianus, Poik.Hist. 14.7, Kennell, 1995, p. 65-69, Kyle, 2007, p.183). apart from fighting, dance also played an important role in the education of young Spartans. Dance and ritual were interwoven and inextricably linked to all important Spartan rites of passage, namely the passages to puberty, adulthood and marriage. Practice in dance and song constituted the fundamental means of education and the maintenance of social institutions. The circle dance formed an indirect way for the foundation of the relationship between the citizen and the city, forming, as it did, a microcosm of the community. The circle creates unity, unifying members of a group with common characteristics (Papadopoulou, 2004). The chorostasio, the area where groups sharing common characteristics (sex, age, order) and common aims ( deception of the divine, celebration) performed dancing rituals, allowed individuals to espouse and be observed, choose and be chosen. Consequently, dance and music functioned as social forces, especially in the context of religious ritual, and conveyed messages of uniformity and unity during public events. (Naerebout, 2004).No doubt, music and dance contests held central place in the most important Spartan festivals, more specifically the Karneia, Yakintheia and the Gymnopaidiai. In the Gymnopaidies, the social/educational role of dance is reflected on the simultaneous participation of individuals of different ages children, adults and the elderly, all sing the works of famous poets (Athenaeus, 15.678 b-c).In Gymnopaidies children had a prominent role as long as the feast mainly included dancing (orchisi) of naked youngsters, where participants, with rhythmical movements, represented scenes of fight and pangratium. They practiced different gymnastic exercises and moved rhythmically their legs as if they were in the palaistra. (Athenaeus, 15,.678 b-c). They displayed a competitive character (Xenopho n Ellinika 6.4 16). It is in these feasts where we can locate evidence of primitive rites of passage.The song contests during the festival of the Yakintheia had the character of initiation and aimed at the integration of young people into the adult community. During the second day of the Yakintheia various spectacles took place. A lavish feast was held in which children wearing tunics played stringed instruments and chanting hymns to the god, groups of young people sang traditional songs and dancers performed to the accompaniment of the pipe and sung hymns (Athenaeus 4.139 d-t).Agogi incorporated many elements of such initiative rites of passage moving further on adaptations of crucial importance in order to be functional within the frames of a political society. It converted premature inaugural rituals into a governmental system (Ducat, 2006, p. 181-188, Levy, 2008, p. 147-161). In these festivals the entire society participated, and this was a fact that strengthened social bonds. teenaged persons demonstrated their bodily kinetic abilities and were judged by the political body. These religious feasts incorporate and bring people into the heart of society. During these contests adolescents were grouped according to ancestral races and groups and took part in the competitions (Kennell, 1995, p. 51-52).Song and dancing contests also took place during the third largest Spartan festival, the Karneia (Euripides, Alkeste, 445-451). Scenes from the ceremonial ritual are depicted on a red-figured volcanic crater from the Spartan colony at Tarentum in southern Italy dancers, bearing baskets on their heads, perform the kalathiskos dance next to a column inscribed with the word Karneios (Papadopoulou, 2004).For young persons who participated in the feast of Yakintheia this was equivalent to the passage from adolescence to the status of adult warrior. Processions, dance and fights were some of the activities carried out by youngsters who were taking part. The myth of hyacinth might cod been related to rites of outbreak in Sparta as many elements of initiative customs exist and this was considered as a festival of recommencement of the world (Richer, 2004, p. 77-84). It was a compound complex religious ceremony. Nilsson (1912, 1955) tracks down an invocation of spring within the cheerful moment of celebration Brelich (1969) says that the contrast between joy and sorrow is marking a passage to a new era. The objective of Yakintheia was, maybe, the secure integration of young persons in society.Special mention should be made to the education of Spartan girls. The establishment of rites and contests for socialisation and the passage to womanhood were immensely important for both them and the Spartan State. Girls education took place in public and was not restricted to the house, nor were they excluded from the life of men (Birgalias, 1999, p.256, Ducat, 2006, p. 232-237). pass a large part of their life in public would have helped them to fulfil t heir public role as good and responsible wives. (Ducat, 2006, p. 245, Cartledge, 2004, p. 640-641).State ceremonies, such as religious processions, festivals and competitions, promoted the participation of girls in public life and their equality to men. The education and training of Spartan women gained them Pan-Hellenic fame. With systematic physical exercise girls were trained to be fit, suffer the pangs of childbirth and give birth to strong healthy Spartan warriors.Xenophon (Lakedaimonion Politeia, 1.3-5) and Plutarch (Lycurgus, 14) inform us that in certain rituals accompanied by dance and song, women participated naked displaying their fitness, the ideal promoted by Spartan education (Kokkorou-Alevra, 2002, p. 131-133).Although athletic contests, (e.g. fighting, for girls and women) are testified elsewhere in Greece, those in Sparta constituted not only as part of religious ceremonies (as in the other Greek city-states) but more importantly they were incorporated into the educ ational system, which included girls from all social ranks.Various testimonies survive to the fitness of Spartan women Alcmans Parthenia (11.58-9, 11. 45-9) gives a vivid account of the athletic contests a bronze figurine date to c. 500 BC (now in the British Museum) which depicts a young Spartan athlete or dancer is indicative of the freedom and the robustness of the girl Pausanias (3.13.7) also mentions female contests during a festival in honour of Dionysus Kolonatas Hysichius reports that women competed in racing (Ducat, 2006, p. 231). Similar reports can be found in Theocrituss Helens Epithalamios (11, 22-5) in which young girls participated in racing contests that took place near the baths of the River Eurotas. Plutarch suggests that exercise was an antidote to lethargy and adolescents were prepared for harmonious marriages because of the successful co-existence of boys and girls in the playground, a common training that inspired the Edgar Degas in his Spartan Girls Challengi ng Boys (c. 1860-1862, London content Gallery).Such training aimed to create women with a strong sense of tariff and conscience. In no other Greek city-state were women so actively involved in public affairs, nor was their attendance in public assemblies so decisive. Spartan women, even though they werent official members of governmental and institutional bodies, took part in important decision-making acts, being allowed freedom of speech and able therefore to influence decision making. It follows, then, that they were not considered inferior to men.If the rites of passage were significant for a boy in order to become the ideal citizen-soldier, for girls such rites were important in order to make them good mothers and capable supervisors of their households. Marriage was for the girl what war was for a boy both situations mark the perfection of their nature and the means of entry into a situation in which each one participates in the life of the others. (Vermant, 2003, p. 40-41).T he participation of children in festivals was obligatory in ancient Sparta. Such occasions, in which elements of ancient rites of passage can be discerned, enhanced communal cohesiveness (Kitto, 2002, p. 278-280) with the establishment of public ceremonies incorporating adolescents into adult society, organised by the community and common for all young participants (Ducat, 2006, p.182). If any young individual failed in the ordeals, he/she was considered incompetent to become a full member of the community.During the rites of passage the young person refrained from communal life and had to fight to survive in the wild, guided by certain rituals and teachings. By incorporating certain elements of these archaic rites of passage into communal life, Spartan education succeeded in forming them into a strong political system.The innovative contribution of this article is the way the subject is approached by examining physical and kinetic activities and the role played by these elements, in the socialization of a young person. Living in an era of globalization and individualism, in a world lacking of exercise and of wise management of free time and, above all, in a period deprived of social coherence, it is Spartan agogi that teaches us the value of exercise and physical activities, the culture of the body, the opposition to materialism, the value of tradition and public feasts and its effectiveness in socialization and social cohesionConclusionWhat this paper has set out to establish is that rites of passage, interwoven with kinetic activities, were incorporated into the agogi the educational system of Sparta that played a pivotal role in the socialisation of youth. Sparta was a Greek city-state unique in the interrelatedness between its educational system and its political, social and economic life, a system which conveyed and propagated a complete system of values that fully expressed Spartan society education obligatory and uniform for all both boys and girls by not promoting me against us, learnt to define themselves as part of the whole rather than at an individualistic level, a way of upbringing and teaching inspired obedience, bravery, make up and professional military ability.